CA-10型汽油機(jī)曲軸加工工藝規(guī)程及夾具設(shè)計【含開題 文獻(xiàn)】【2副夾具】
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大紅鷹學(xué)院
機(jī)械加工工序卡片
產(chǎn)品型號
零件圖號
產(chǎn)品名稱
三拐曲軸
零件名稱
三拐曲軸
共
10
頁
第
1
頁
車間
工序號
工序名稱
材 料 牌 號
金工
70
銑
QT600-3
毛 坯 種 類
毛坯外形尺寸
每毛坯可制件數(shù)
每 臺 件 數(shù)
鑄造
1
1
設(shè)備名稱
設(shè)備型號
設(shè)備編號
同時加工件數(shù)
端銑銑床
X55W
1
1
夾具編號
夾具名稱
切削液
1
專用夾具
普通乳化液
工位器具編號
工位器具名稱
工序工時 (分)
準(zhǔn)終
單件
2
2
工步號
工 步 內(nèi) 容
工 藝 裝 備
主軸轉(zhuǎn)速
切削速度
進(jìn)給量
切削深度
進(jìn)給次數(shù)
工步工時/s
r/min
m/s
mm/r
mm
機(jī)動
輔助
1
經(jīng)兩軸徑部分定位壓緊分別銑兩個端面保證總長尺寸520mm,鉆左端中心孔B4
銑刀,游標(biāo)卡尺,專用夾具
500
1.27
0.8
3
1
15
10
設(shè) 計(日 期)
校 對(日期)
審 核(日期)
標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化(日期)
會 簽(日期)
標(biāo)記
處數(shù)
更改文件號
簽 字
日 期
標(biāo)記
處數(shù)
更改文件號
簽 字
日 期
大紅鷹學(xué)院
機(jī)械加工工序卡片
產(chǎn)品型號
零件圖號
產(chǎn)品名稱
三拐曲軸
零件名稱
三拐曲軸
共
10
頁
第
2
頁
車間
工序號
工序名稱
材 料 牌 號
金工
80
粗車
QT600-3
毛 坯 種 類
毛坯外形尺寸
每毛坯可制件數(shù)
每 臺 件 數(shù)
鑄造
1
1
設(shè)備名稱
設(shè)備型號
設(shè)備編號
同時加工件數(shù)
臥式車床
CW6163
1
1
夾具編號
夾具名稱
切削液
1
專用夾具
普通乳化液
工位器具編號
工位器具名稱
工序工時 (分)
準(zhǔn)終
單件
2
2
工步號
工 步 內(nèi) 容
工 藝 裝 備
主軸轉(zhuǎn)速
切削速度
進(jìn)給量
切削深度
進(jìn)給次數(shù)
工步工時/s
r/min
m/s
mm/r
mm
機(jī)動
輔助
1
夾右端外圓,找正兩軸徑外圓。頂左端中心孔,車兩軸徑處,其中1:20一端(右端)尺寸為φ55mm,另一端(左端)尺寸為φ70mm(工藝尺寸)
車刀,游標(biāo)卡尺,專用夾具
800
23
1.5
2
1
18
12
設(shè) 計(日 期)
校 對(日期)
審 核(日期)
標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化(日期)
會 簽(日期)
標(biāo)記
處數(shù)
更改文件號
簽 字
日 期
標(biāo)記
處數(shù)
更改文件號
簽 字
日 期
大紅鷹學(xué)院
機(jī)械加工工序卡片
產(chǎn)品型號
零件圖號
產(chǎn)品名稱
三拐曲軸
零件名稱
三拐曲軸
共
10
頁
第
3
頁
車間
工序號
工序名稱
材 料 牌 號
金工
90
粗車
QT600-3
毛 坯 種 類
毛坯外形尺寸
每毛坯可制件數(shù)
每 臺 件 數(shù)
鑄造
1
1
設(shè)備名稱
設(shè)備型號
設(shè)備編號
同時加工件數(shù)
臥式車床
CW6163
1
1
夾具編號
夾具名稱
切削液
1
專用夾具
普通乳化液
工位器具編號
工位器具名稱
工序工時 (分)
準(zhǔn)終
單件
2
2
工步號
工 步 內(nèi) 容
工 藝 裝 備
主軸轉(zhuǎn)速
切削速度
進(jìn)給量
切削深度
進(jìn)給次數(shù)
工步工時/s
r/min
m/s
mm/r
mm
機(jī)動
輔助
1
倒頭裝夾工件左端φ70mm處,中心架夾帶錐一端φ55mm軸徑上,鉆右端中心孔B4,粗車錐度一端各部尺寸,留加工余量5mm(其中φ70mm車至圖樣尺寸)
車刀,游標(biāo)卡尺,專用夾具
800
23
1.5
2
1
18
12
設(shè) 計(日 期)
校 對(日期)
審 核(日期)
標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化(日期)
會 簽(日期)
標(biāo)記
處數(shù)
更改文件號
簽 字
日 期
標(biāo)記
處數(shù)
更改文件號
簽 字
日 期
大紅鷹學(xué)院
機(jī)械加工工序卡片
產(chǎn)品型號
零件圖號
產(chǎn)品名稱
三拐曲軸
零件名稱
三拐曲軸
共
10
頁
第
4
頁
車間
工序號
工序名稱
材 料 牌 號
金工
100、110
銑
QT600-3
毛 坯 種 類
毛坯外形尺寸
每毛坯可制件數(shù)
每 臺 件 數(shù)
鑄造
1
1
設(shè)備名稱
設(shè)備型號
設(shè)備編號
同時加工件數(shù)
銑床
X52K
1
1
夾具編號
夾具名稱
切削液
1
專用夾具
普通乳化液
工位器具編號
工位器具名稱
工序工時 (分)
準(zhǔn)終
單件
2
2
工步號
工 步 內(nèi) 容
工 藝 裝 備
主軸轉(zhuǎn)速
切削速度
進(jìn)給量
切削深度
進(jìn)給次數(shù)
工步工時/s
r/min
m/s
mm/r
mm
機(jī)動
輔助
1
在左端φ70mm軸徑上劃鍵槽線深5mm、寬12mm、長75mm(工藝用鍵槽),注意與靠φ70mm最近的拐在同一平面內(nèi)
2
以兩φ55mm定位裝夾工件銑鍵槽寬12mm、長75mm
銑刀,游標(biāo)卡尺,專用夾具
500
1.27
0.8
3
1
15
10
設(shè) 計(日 期)
校 對(日期)
審 核(日期)
標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化(日期)
會 簽(日期)
標(biāo)記
處數(shù)
更改文件號
簽 字
日 期
標(biāo)記
處數(shù)
更改文件號
簽 字
日 期
大紅鷹學(xué)院
機(jī)械加工工序卡片
產(chǎn)品型號
零件圖號
產(chǎn)品名稱
三拐曲軸
零件名稱
三拐曲軸
共
10
頁
第
5
頁
車間
工序號
工序名稱
材 料 牌 號
金工
120、130
粗精車
QT600-3
毛 坯 種 類
毛坯外形尺寸
每毛坯可制件數(shù)
每 臺 件 數(shù)
鑄造
1
1
設(shè)備名稱
設(shè)備型號
設(shè)備編號
同時加工件數(shù)
臥式車床
CW6163
1
1
夾具編號
夾具名稱
切削液
1
專用夾具
普通乳化液
工位器具編號
工位器具名稱
工序工時 (分)
準(zhǔn)終
單件
2
2
工步號
工 步 內(nèi) 容
工 藝 裝 備
主軸轉(zhuǎn)速
切削速度
進(jìn)給量
切削深度
進(jìn)給次數(shù)
工步工時/s
r/min
m/s
mm/r
mm
機(jī)動
輔助
1
采用專用工裝裝病例工件粗車曲軸三個拐徑及拐徑兩個側(cè)面,(專用工裝為轉(zhuǎn)夾具,可進(jìn)行三等分分度)留加工余量5mm
車刀,游標(biāo)卡尺,專用夾具
800
23
1.5
2
1
18
12
2
采用專用工裝裝夾工件精車曲軸三個拐徑及拐徑兩個側(cè)面,留磨量0.8mm~1mm
車刀,游標(biāo)卡尺,專用夾具
1200
30.5
1
1
1
18
12
設(shè) 計(日 期)
校 對(日期)
審 核(日期)
標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化(日期)
會 簽(日期)
標(biāo)記
處數(shù)
更改文件號
簽 字
日 期
標(biāo)記
處數(shù)
更改文件號
簽 字
日 期
大紅鷹學(xué)院
機(jī)械加工工序卡片
產(chǎn)品型號
零件圖號
產(chǎn)品名稱
三拐曲軸
零件名稱
三拐曲軸
共
10
頁
第
6
頁
車間
工序號
工序名稱
材 料 牌 號
金工
140、150
粗精車
QT600-3
毛 坯 種 類
毛坯外形尺寸
每毛坯可制件數(shù)
每 臺 件 數(shù)
鑄造
1
1
設(shè)備名稱
設(shè)備型號
設(shè)備編號
同時加工件數(shù)
臥式車床
CW6163
1
1
夾具編號
夾具名稱
切削液
1
專用夾具
普通乳化液
工位器具編號
工位器具名稱
工序工時 (分)
準(zhǔn)終
單件
2
2
工步號
工 步 內(nèi) 容
工 藝 裝 備
主軸轉(zhuǎn)速
切削速度
進(jìn)給量
切削深度
進(jìn)給次數(shù)
工步工時/s
r/min
m/s
mm/r
mm
機(jī)動
輔助
1
夾工件左端,頂右端中心孔,車工件右端各部尺寸,留加工余量0.8~1mm,車1:20錐度留加工余量1mm
車刀,游標(biāo)卡尺,專用夾具
800
23
1.5
2
1
18
12
2
倒頭,采用兩頂尖裝夾工件,車左端尺寸φ55mm至φ55mm,倒角R5
車刀,游標(biāo)卡尺,專用夾具
1200
30.5
1
1
1
18
12
設(shè) 計(日 期)
校 對(日期)
審 核(日期)
標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化(日期)
會 簽(日期)
標(biāo)記
處數(shù)
更改文件號
簽 字
日 期
標(biāo)記
處數(shù)
更改文件號
簽 字
日 期
大紅鷹學(xué)院
機(jī)械加工工序卡片
產(chǎn)品型號
零件圖號
產(chǎn)品名稱
三拐曲軸
零件名稱
三拐曲軸
共
10
頁
第
7
頁
車間
工序號
工序名稱
材 料 牌 號
金工
170
磨
QT600-3
毛 坯 種 類
毛坯外形尺寸
每毛坯可制件數(shù)
每 臺 件 數(shù)
鑄造
1
1
設(shè)備名稱
設(shè)備型號
設(shè)備編號
同時加工件數(shù)
磨床
M8240
1
1
夾具編號
夾具名稱
切削液
1
專用夾具
普通乳化液
工位器具編號
工位器具名稱
工序工時 (分)
準(zhǔn)終
單件
2
2
工步號
工 步 內(nèi) 容
工 藝 裝 備
主軸轉(zhuǎn)速
切削速度
進(jìn)給量
切削深度
進(jìn)給次數(shù)
工步工時/s
r/min
m/s
mm/r
mm
機(jī)動
輔助
1
以兩中心孔定位裝夾工件(專用工裝),磨拐徑三處至圖樣尺寸φ55mm,靠磨拐徑兩側(cè)及圓角R5
磨刀,游標(biāo)卡尺,專用夾具
800
34.7
0.5
1
1
20
15
設(shè) 計(日 期)
校 對(日期)
審 核(日期)
標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化(日期)
會 簽(日期)
標(biāo)記
處數(shù)
更改文件號
簽 字
日 期
標(biāo)記
處數(shù)
更改文件號
簽 字
日 期
大紅鷹學(xué)院
機(jī)械加工工序卡片
產(chǎn)品型號
零件圖號
產(chǎn)品名稱
三拐曲軸
零件名稱
三拐曲軸
共
10
頁
第
8
頁
車間
工序號
工序名稱
材 料 牌 號
金工
180
磨
QT600-3
毛 坯 種 類
毛坯外形尺寸
每毛坯可制件數(shù)
每 臺 件 數(shù)
鑄造
1
1
設(shè)備名稱
設(shè)備型號
設(shè)備編號
同時加工件數(shù)
磨床
磨床M1432A
1
1
夾具編號
夾具名稱
切削液
1
專用夾具
普通乳化液
工位器具編號
工位器具名稱
工序工時 (分)
準(zhǔn)終
單件
2
2
工步號
工 步 內(nèi) 容
工 藝 裝 備
主軸轉(zhuǎn)速
切削速度
進(jìn)給量
切削深度
進(jìn)給次數(shù)
工步工時/s
r/min
m/s
mm/r
mm
機(jī)動
輔助
1
以兩中心孔定位裝夾工件,磨軸徑兩處φ55mm至圖樣尺寸磨φ50mm至圖樣尺寸
磨刀,游標(biāo)卡尺,專用夾具
800
34.7
0.5
1
1
20
15
設(shè) 計(日 期)
校 對(日期)
審 核(日期)
標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化(日期)
會 簽(日期)
標(biāo)記
處數(shù)
更改文件號
簽 字
日 期
標(biāo)記
處數(shù)
更改文件號
簽 字
日 期
大紅鷹學(xué)院
機(jī)械加工工序卡片
產(chǎn)品型號
零件圖號
產(chǎn)品名稱
三拐曲軸
零件名稱
三拐曲軸
共
10
頁
第
9
頁
車間
工序號
工序名稱
材 料 牌 號
金工
190
磨
QT600-3
毛 坯 種 類
毛坯外形尺寸
每毛坯可制件數(shù)
每 臺 件 數(shù)
鑄造
1
1
設(shè)備名稱
設(shè)備型號
設(shè)備編號
同時加工件數(shù)
磨床
磨床M1432A
1
1
夾具編號
夾具名稱
切削液
1
專用夾具
普通乳化液
工位器具編號
工位器具名稱
工序工時 (分)
準(zhǔn)終
單件
2
2
工步號
工 步 內(nèi) 容
工 藝 裝 備
主軸轉(zhuǎn)速
切削速度
進(jìn)給量
切削深度
進(jìn)給次數(shù)
工步工時/s
r/min
m/s
mm/r
mm
機(jī)動
輔助
1
夾工件左端,中心架夾右端φ55mm處,找正,磨1:20錐度至圖樣尺寸
磨刀,游標(biāo)卡尺,專用夾具
800
34.7
0.5
1
1
20
15
設(shè) 計(日 期)
校 對(日期)
審 核(日期)
標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化(日期)
會 簽(日期)
標(biāo)記
處數(shù)
更改文件號
簽 字
日 期
標(biāo)記
處數(shù)
更改文件號
簽 字
日 期
大紅鷹學(xué)院
機(jī)械加工工序卡片
產(chǎn)品型號
零件圖號
產(chǎn)品名稱
三拐曲軸
零件名稱
三拐曲軸
共
10
頁
第
10
頁
車間
工序號
工序名稱
材 料 牌 號
金工
200、210
銑
QT600-3
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20
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30
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40
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60
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70
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90
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100
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在左端φ70mm軸徑上劃鍵槽線深5mm、寬12mm、長75mm(工藝用鍵槽),注意與靠φ70mm最近的拐在同一平面內(nèi)
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10
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110
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15
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120
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采用專用工裝裝病例工件粗車曲軸三個拐徑及拐徑兩個側(cè)面,(專用工裝為轉(zhuǎn)夾具,可進(jìn)行三等分分度)留加工余量5mm
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130
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140
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150
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160
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檢查曲軸偏心距
170
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以兩中心孔定位裝夾工件(專用工裝),磨拐徑三處至圖樣尺寸φ55mm,靠磨拐徑兩側(cè)及圓角R5
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磨床M8240
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20
15
180
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以兩中心孔定位裝夾工件,磨軸徑兩處φ55mm至圖樣尺寸磨φ50mm至圖樣尺寸
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200
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210
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220
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Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2001) 17:104113 2001 Springer-Verlag London LimitedFixture Clamping Force Optimisation and its Impact onWorkpiece Location AccuracyB. Li and S. N. MelkoteGeorge W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Georgia, USAWorkpiece motion arising from localised elastic deformationat fixtureworkpiece contacts owing to clamping and machiningforces is known to affect significantly the workpiece locationaccuracy and, hence, the final part quality. This effect can beminimised through fixture design optimisation. The clampingforce is a critical design variable that can be optimised toreduce the workpiece motion. This paper presents a newmethod for determining the optimum clamping forces for amultiple clamp fixture subjected to quasi-static machiningforces. The method uses elastic contact mechanics modelsto represent the fixtureworkpiece contact and involves theformulation and solution of a multi-objective constrainedoptimisation model. The impact of clamping force optimisationon workpiece location accuracy is analysed through examplesinvolving a 32-1 type milling fixture.Keywords: Elasticcontactmodelling;Fixtureclampingforce; Optimisation1.IntroductionThe location and immobilisation of the workpiece are twocritical factors in machining. A machining fixture achievesthese functions by locating the workpiece with respect to asuitable datum, and clamping the workpiece against it. Theclamping force applied must be large enough to restrain theworkpiece motion completely during machining. However,excessive clamping force can induce unacceptable level ofworkpiece elastic distortion, which will adversely affect itslocation and, in turn, the part quality. Hence, it is necessaryto determine the optimum clamping forces that minimise theworkpiece location error due to elastic deformation whilesatisfying the total restraint requirement.Previous researchers in the fixture analysis and synthesisarea have used the finite-element (FE) modelling approach orCorrespondenceandoffprintrequeststo:DrS.N.Melkote,George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, GeorgiaInstitute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332-0405, USA. E-mail:shreyes.melkoteme.gatech.eduthe rigid-body modelling approach. Extensive work based onthe FE approach has been reported 18. With the exceptionof DeMeter 8, a common limitation of this approach is thelarge model size and computation cost. Also, most of the FE-based research has focused on fixture layout optimisation, andclamping force optimisation has not been addressed adequately.Several researchers have addressed fixture clamping forceoptimisation based on the rigid-body model 911. The rigidbody modelling approach treats the fixture-element and work-piece as perfectly rigid solids. DeMeter 12, 13 used screwtheory to solve for the minimum clamping force. The overallproblem was formulated as a linear program whose objectivewas to minimise the normal contact force at each locatingpoint by adjusting the clamping force intensity. The effect ofthe contact friction force was neglected because of its relativelysmall magnitude compared with the normal contact force. Sincethis approach is based on the rigid body assumption, it canuniquely only handle 3D fixturing schemes that involve nomore than 6 unknowns. Fuh and Nee 14 also presentedan iterative search-based method that computes the minimumclamping force by assuming that the friction force directionsare known a priori. The primary limitation of the rigid-bodyanalysis is that it is statically indeterminate when more thansix contact forces are unknown. As a result, workpiece displace-ments cannot be determined uniquely by this method.This limitation may be overcome by accounting for theelasticity of the fixtureworkpiece system 15. For a relativelyrigid workpiece, the location of the workpiece in the machiningfixture is strongly influenced by the localised elastic defor-mation at the fixturing points. Hockenberger and DeMeter 16used empirical contact force-deformation relations (called meta-functions) to solve for the workpiece rigid-body displacementsdue to clamping and quasi-static machining forces. The sameauthors also investigated the effect of machining fixture designparameters on workpiece displacement 17. Gui et al 18reported an elastic contact model for improving workpiecelocation accuracy through optimisation of the clamping force.However, they did not address methods for calculating thefixtureworkpiece contact stiffness. In addition, the applicationof their algorithm for a sequence of machining loads rep-resenting a finite tool path was not discussed. Li and Melkote19 and Hurtado and Melkote 20 used contact mechanics toFixture Clamping Force Optimisation105solve for the contact forces and workpiece displacement pro-duced by the elastic deformation at the fixturing points owingto clamping loads. They also developed methods for optimisingthe fixture layout 21 and clamping force using this method22. However, clamping force optimisation for a multiclampsystem and its impact on workpiece accuracy were not coveredin these papers.This paper presents a new algorithm based on the contactelasticity method for determining the optimum clamping forcesfor a multiclamp fixtureworkpiece system subjected to quasi-static loads. The method seeks to minimise the impact ofworkpiece motion due to clamping and machining loads onthe part location accuracy by systematically optimising theclamping forces. A contact mechanics model is used to deter-mine a set of contact forces and displacements, which are thenused for the clamping force optimisation. The complete prob-lem is formulated and solved as a multi-objective constrainedoptimisation problem. The impact of clamping force optimis-ation on workpiece location accuracy is analysed via twoexamples involving a 32-1 fixture layout for a milling oper-ation.2.FixtureWorkpiece Contact Modelling2.1Modelling AssumptionsThe machining fixture consists of L locators and C clampswith spherical tips. The workpiece and fixture materials arelinearly elastic in the contact region, and perfectly rigid else-where. The workpiecefixture system is subjected to quasi-static loads due to clamping and machining. The clamping forceis assumed to be constant during machining. This assumption isvalid when hydraulic or pneumatic clamps are used.In reality, the elasticity of the fixtureworkpiece contactregion is distributed. However, in this model development,lumped contact stiffness is assumed (see Fig. 1). Therefore, thecontact force and localised deformation at the ith fixturingpoint can be related as follows:Fij= kijdij(1)where kij(j = x,y,z) denotes the contact stiffness in the tangentialand normal directions of the local xi,yi,zicoordinate frame, dijFig. 1. A lumped-spring fixtureworkpiece contact model. xi, yi, zi,denote the local coordinate frame at the ith contact.(j = x,y,z) are the corresponding localised elastic deformationsalong the xi,yi, and ziaxes, respectively, Fij(j = x,j,z) representsthe local contact force components with Fixand Fiybeing thelocal xiand yicomponents of the tangential force, and Fizthenormal force.2.2WorkpieceFixture Contact Stiffness ModelThe lumped compliance at a spherical tip locator/clamp andworkpiece contact is not linear because the contact radiusvaries nonlinearly with the normal force 23. The contactdeformation due to the normal force Piacting between aspherical tipped fixture element of radius Riand a planarworkpiece surface can be obtained from the closed-form Hertz-ian solution to the problem of a sphere indenting an elastichalf-space. For this problem, the normal deformation Dinisgiven as 23, p. 93:Din=S9(Pi)216Ri(E*)2D1/3(2)where1E*=1 n2wEw+1 n2fEfEwand Efare Youngs moduli for the workpiece and fixturematerials, respectively, and nwand nfare Poisson ratios forthe workpiece and fixture materials, respectively.The tangential deformation Dit(= Ditxor Dityin the local xiand yitangential directions, respectively) due to a tangentialforce Qi(= Qixor Qiy) has the following form 23, p. 217:Dtit=Qi8aiS2 nfGf+2 nwGwD(3)whereai=S3PiRi4S1 nfEf+1 nwEwDD1/3and Gwand Gfare shear moduli for the workpiece and fixturematerials, respectively.A reasonable linear approximation of the contact stiffnesscan be obtained from a least-squares fit to Eq. (2). This yieldsthe following linearised contact stiffness values:kiz= 8.82S16Ri(E*)29D1/3(4)kix= kiy=4E*S2 njGf+2 nwGwD1kiz(5)In deriving the above linear approximation, the normal forcePiwas assumed to vary from 0 to 1000 N, and the correspond-ing R2value of the least-squares fit was found to be 0.94.3.Clamping Force OptimisationThe goal is to determine the set of optimal clamping forcesthat will minimise the workpiece rigid-body motion due to106B. Li and S. N. Melkotelocalised elastic deformation induced by the clamping andmachining loads, while maintaining the fixtureworkpiece sys-tem in quasi-static equilibrium during machining. Minimisationof the workpiece motion will, in turn, reduce the location error.This goal is achieved by formulating the problem as a multi-objective constrained optimisation problem, as described next.3.1Objective Function FormulationSince the workpiece rotation due to fixturing forces is oftenquite small 17 the workpiece location error is assumed to bedetermined largely by its rigid-body translation Ddw= DXwDYwDZwT, where DXw, DYw, and DZware the three orthogonalcomponents of Ddwalong the Xg, Yg, and Zgaxes (see Fig. 2).The workpiece location error due to the fixturing forces canthen be calculated in terms of the L2norm of the rigid-bodydisplacement as follows:iDdwi =(DXw)2+ (DYw)2+ (DZw)2)(6)where i i denotes the L2norm of a vector.In particular, the resultant clamping force acting on theworkpiece will adversely affect the location error. When mul-tiple clamping forces are applied to the workpiece, the resultantclamping force, PRC= PRXPRyPRZT, has the form:PRC= RCPC(7)wherePC= PL+1. . .PL+CTistheclampingforcevector,RC= nL+1. . .nL+CTis the clamping force direction matrix,nL+i= cosaL+icosbL+icosgL+iTis the clamping force directioncosine vector, and aL+i, bL+i, and gL+iare angles made by theclamping force vector at the ith clamping point with respectto the Xg, Yg, Zgcoordinate axes (i = 1,2,. . .,C).In this paper, the workpiece location error due to contactregion deformation is assumed to be influenced only by thenormal force acting at the locatorworkpiece contacts. Thefrictional force at the contacts is relatively small and is neg-lected when analysing the impact of the clamping force on theworkpiece location error. Denoting the ratio of the normalcontact stiffness, kiz, to the smallest normal stiffness among alllocators, ksz, by ji(i = 1,. . .,L), and assuming that the workpiecerests on NX, NY, and NZnumber of locators oriented in the Xg,Fig. 2. Workpiece rigid body translation and rotation.Yg, and Zgdirections, the equivalent contact stiffness in theXg, Yg, and Zgdirections can be calculated askszSONXi=1jiD, kszSONYi=1jiD, and kszSONZi=1jiDrespectively (see Fig. 3). The workpiece rigid-body motion,Ddw, due to clamping action can now be written as:Ddw=3PRXkszSONXi=1jiDPRYkszSONYi=1jiDPRZkszSONZi=1jiD4T(8)The workpiece motion, and hence the location error can bereduced by minimising the weighted L2norm of the resultantclamping force vector. Therefore, the first objective functioncan be written as:Minimize iPRCiw=!11PRXONXi=1ji22+1PRYONYi=1ji22+1PRZONZi=1ji222(9)Note that the weighting factors are proportional to the equival-ent contact stiffnesses in the Xg, Yg, and Zgdirections.The components of PRCare uniquely determined by solvingthe contact elasticity problem using the principle of minimumtotal complementary energy 15, 23. This ensures that theclamping forces and the corresponding locator reactions are“true” solutions to the contact problem and yield “true” rigid-body displacements, and that the workpiece is kept in staticequilibrium by the clamping forces at all times. Therefore, theminimisation of the total complementary energy forms thesecond objective function for the clamping force optimisationand is given by:Minimise (U* W*) =12FOL+Ci=1(Fix)2kix+OL+Ci=1(Fiy)2kiy+OL+Ci=1(Fiz)2kizG(10)= .lTQlFig. 3. The basis for the determination of the weighting factor for theL2norm calculation.Fixture Clamping Force Optimisation107where U* represents the complementary strain energy of theelastically deformed bodies, W* represents the complementarywork done by the external force and moments, Q = diagc1xc1yc1z. . . cL+CxcL+CycL+Cz is the diagonal contact compliancematrix, cij= (kij)1, and l = F1xF1yF1z. . . FL+CxFL+CyFL+CzTis thevector of all contact forces.3.2Friction and Static Equilibrium ConstraintsThe optimisation objective in Eq. (10) is subject to certainconstraints and bounds. Foremost among them is the staticfriction constraint at each contact. Coulombs friction law statesthat(Fix)2+ (Fiy)2) # misFiz(misis the static friction coefficient).A conservative and linearised version of this nonlinear con-straint can be used and is given by 19:uFixu + uFiyu # misFiz(11)Since quasi-static loads are assumed, the static equilibriumof the workpiece is ensured by including the following forceand moment equilibrium equations (in vector form):OF = 0(12)OM = 0where the forces and moments consist of the machining forces,workpiece weight and the contact forces in the normal andtangential directions.3.3BoundsSince the fixtureworkpiece contact is strictly unilateral, thenormal contact force, Pi, can only be compressive. This isexpressed by the following bound on Pi:Pi$ 0(i = 1, . . ., L + C)(13)where it is assumed that normal forces directed into theworkpiece are positive.In addition, the normal compressive stress at a contact cannotexceed the compressive yield strength (Sy) of the workpiecematerial. This upper bound is written as:Pi# SyAi(i = 1, . . .,L+C)(14)where Aiis the contact area at the ith workpiecefixture con-tact.The complete clamping force optimisation model can nowbe written as:Minimize f =Hf1f2J=H.lTQliPRCiwJ(15)subject to: (11)(14).4.Algorithm for Model SolutionThe multi-objective optimisation problem in Eq. (15) can besolved by the e-constraint method 24. This method identifiesone of the objective functions as primary, and converts theother into a constraint. In this work, the minimisation of thecomplementary energy (f1) is treated as the primary objectivefunction, and the weighted L2norm of the resultant clampingforce (f2) is treated as a constraint. The choice of f1as theprimary objective ensures that a unique set of feasible clampingforces is selected. As a result, the workpiecefixture system isdriven to a stable state (i.e. the minimum energy state) thatalso has the smallest weighted L2norm for the resultantclamping force.The conversion of f2into a constraint involves specifyingthe weighted L2norm to be less than or equal to e, where eis an upper bound on f2. To determine a suitable e, it isinitially assumed that all clamping forces are unknown. Thecontact forces at the locating and clamping points are computedby considering only the first objective function (i.e. f1). Whilethis set of contact forces does not necessarily yield the lowestclamping forces, it is a “true” feasible solution to the contactelasticity problem that can completely restrain the workpiecein the fixture. The weighted L2norm of these clamping forcesis computed and taken as the initial value of e. Therefore,the clamping force optimisation problem in Eq. (15) can berewritten as:Minimize f1= .lTQl(16)subject to: iPRCiw$ e, (11)(14).An algorithm similar to the bisection method for findingroots of an equation is used to determine the lowest upperbound for iPRCiw. By decreasing the upper bound e as muchas possible, the minimum weighted L2norm of the resultantclamping force is obtained. The number of iterations, K, neededto terminate the search depends on the required predictionaccuracy d and ueu, and is given by 25:K =Flog2SueudDG(17)where I denotes the ceiling function. The complete algorithmis given in Fig. 4.5.Determination of Optimum ClampingForces During MachiningThe algorithm presented in the previous section can be usedto determine the optimum clamping force for a single loadvector applied to the workpiece. However, during millingthe magnitude and point of cutting force application changescontinuously along the tool path. Therefore, an infinite set ofoptimum clamping forces corresponding to the infinite set ofmachining loads will be obtained with the algorithm of Fig. 4.This substantially increases the computational burden and callsfor a criterion/procedure for selecting a single set of clampingforces that will be satisfactory and optimum for the entire toolpath. A conservative approach to addressing these issues isdiscussed next.Consider a finite number (say m) of sample points alongthe tool path yielding m corresponding sets of optimum clamp-ing forces denoted as P1opt, P2opt, . . ., Pmopt. At each sampling108B. Li and S. N. MelkoteFig. 4. Clamping force optimisation algorithm (used in example 1).point, the following four worst-case machining load vectorsare considered:FXmax= FmaxXF1YF1ZTFYmax= F2XFmaxYF2ZTFZmax= F3XF3YFmaxZT(18)Frmax= F4XF4YF4ZTwhere FmaxX, FmaxY, and FmaxZare the maximum Xg, Yg, and Zgcomponents of the machining force, the superscripts 1, 2, 3 ofFX, FY, and FZstand for the other two orthogonal machiningforcecomponentscorrespondingtoFmaxX, FmaxY, and FmaxZ,respectively, and iFrmaxi = max(FX)2+ (FY)2+ (FZ)2).Although the four worst-case machining load vectors willnot act on the workpiece at the same instant, they will occuronce per cutter revolution. At conventional feedrates, the errorintroduced by applying the load vectors at the same pointwould be negligible. Therefore, in this work, the four loadvectorsareappliedatthesamelocation(butnotsimultaneously) on the workpiece corresponding to the sam-pling instant.The clamping force optimisation algorithm of Fig. 4 is thenused to calculate the optimum clamping forces correspondingto each sampling point. The optimum clamping forces havethe form:Pijmax= Ci1jCi2j. . . CiCjT(i = 1, . . .,m)(j = x,y,z,r)(19)where Pijmaxis the vector of optimum clamping forces for thefour worst-case machining load vectors, and Cikj(k = 1,. . .,C)is the force magnitude at each clamp corresponding to the ithsample point and the jth load scenario.After Pijmaxis computed for each load application point, asingle set of “optimum” clamping forces must be selected fromall of the optimum clamping forces found for each clamp fromall the sample points and loading conditions. This is done bysorting the optimum clamping force magnitudes at a clampingpoint for all load scenarios and sample points and selectingthe maximum value, Cmaxk, as given in Eq. (20):Cmaxk# Cikj(k = 1,. . .,C)(20)Once this is complete, a set of optimised clamping forcesPopt= Cmax1Cmax2. . . CmaxCTis obtained. These forces must beverified for their ability to ensure static equilibrium of theworkpiecefixture system. Otherwise, more sampling points areselected and the aforementioned procedure repeated. In thisfashion, the “optimum” clamping force, Popt, can be determinedfor the entire tool path. Figure 5 summarises the algorithm justdescribed. Note that although this approach is conservative, itprovides a systematic way of determining a set of clampingforces that minimise the workpiece location error.6.Impact on Workpiece LocationAccuracyIt is of interest to evaluate the impact of the clamping forcealgorithm presented earlier on the workpiece location accuracy.The workpiece is first placed on the fixture baseplate in contactwith the locators. Clamping forces are then applied to pushthe workpiece against the locators. Consequently, localiseddeformations occur at each workpiecefixture contact, causingthe workpiece to translate and rotate in the fixture. Sub-sequently, the quasi-static machining load is applied causingadditional motion of the wor
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